Barriers to Effective Pain Management Essay

Nurses have a unique role in alleviating the pain experienced by their patients. With their professional knowledge and regular close contacts with patients, they are ideally placed to listen and respond to any concerns. Taking time to assess the individual will allow for the development of a thrusting relationship between the nurse and patient. Accurate assessment and documentation can help to chart the multi- dimensional nature of the pain, aiding decision making and patient care planning (Mcguie 1992). Adequate control of pain is only achieved in 50% of patients in Western societies. This emphasizes that pain control is a serious problem for a great number of patients. Health care professionals, patients and the health care system itself all contribute to this problem. Other factors that add to this undesirable situation include the following: – Poor decision making on part of health care professionals – myths and misconceptions about pain and opoids – patients non compliance with treatment and their reluctance to report pain – Problems within the organization of health care Pain assessment and management is an integral part of the daily nursing routine. Health care professionals must strive to overcome the barriers to effective pain management in practice. The tendency to under medicate older adults may be related to several factors, including misguided beliefs, fears regarding complications, and a failure to assess ant treat confused older adults. It is imperative that nurses don’t act upon false misconceptions in delivering patient care. The management of pain in the elderly represents a considerable nursing challenge. This is because the elderly are more likely to experience both acute and chronic pain than their younger counterparts. Age related factors may also complicate the assessment and management of the individual’s pain. Failing sight and hearing, cognitive impairment, confusion and dementia create communication difficulties and therefore pose significant barriers to pain assessment particularly in the use of the measurement tools. Lack of knowledge of the Doctor and nurse / poor communication: An individuals pain is complex, the management should not rely on one professional clinical judgment and action. The pain control process should be interwoven between numerous health care professionals. The nurse must strive to exercise their communication skills in discussing aspects of patient care with the MDT team. A lack of confidence and knowledge are the common reasons for poor communication and teamwork. There is ample evidence to demonstrate that both nurses and doctors have poor knowledge about pain and its management. It is also known that contemporary nursing and medical education programs do not equip health care professionals with significant information on the nature of pain, the methods of pain assessments and the principles of pain management. With a lack of knowledge and basic fundamental management skills, nurses may feel unprepared to care for patients suffering from pain, and consequently make incorrect decisions regarding the management of patient’s pain. Poor decision making on behalf of the nurse can reflect on the following: âž ¢ Underestimation of the severity of the illness âž ¢ Overestimation of the effectiveness of the interventions âž ¢ Reluctance to administer parental analgesia âž ¢ Administering a low dose of opoid rather than the required dose needed to control the severity of patient’s pain. âž ¢ Nurses rarely employing non pharmacological strategies In addition, the lack of knowledge and confidence of the nurse may interfere with his or her ability to effectively communicate aspects of patient care to other health care professionals. The under educated nurse has a tendency to underestimate the MDT and doctor’s involvement in pain assessment and management. However, it is imperative that the doctor carriers out a physical examination of the patient on admission to identify the pathological causes of the patients pain. This is an imperative part of pain management and is much needed to facilitate the planning of care. The more experienced the nurse is the more inclined they are to underestimate severe pain. The less experienced nurse is more inclined to overestimate an individuals pain. The doctor’s lack of confidence and knowledge may result in him or her avoiding discussions relating to analgesia and changing the drug or dose of the opoid, irrespective of the nurse’s belief that it for the best interest of the patient. Doctors that are lacking in knowledge have a tendency to prescribe analgesia below the therapeutic level of the pain and are often reluctant to act upon the nurse. This is a serious issue that must be addressed as the nurse is often the person who knows the most information about the patient as they provide a 24 hour round the clock care to the patient. It is clear that these poor practices arise from a number of inter- related reasons. However the lack of knowledge and effective team work seems to be the central issue. In order to assure effective communication is brought to the clinical practice, efforts to increase group learning and confidence of health care professions is much needed. Role play may improve health care professional’s knowledge and collaboration skills. Interpersonal education may be effective at allowing health care professionals understand each others roles in practice. Regular education sessions in the hospital with numerous health care professions from different specialties may be a great opportunity for nurses and other health care professionals to learn together. Communication Barriers The collection of information at assessment is dependent on the nurse’s ability to communicate effectively. However, nurses commonly lack the skills required in this area. Health care professionals often expect the patients to complain spontaneously of pain and patients often assume the nurse will enquire about their pain. This is one significant issue within communication that is commonly demonstrated in practice. Certain nurses don’t even ask the patient if they are experiencing pain. This is a serious issue as patients may be reluctant to report their pain because they don’t want to appear unpopular or don’t want to distract the health care professionals from treating their condition. The omission of verbal assessment may result in these patients suffering unnecessary pain for a prolonged period of time. This can have devastating long term consequences to an individual’s health. A quantity of nurses may employ some form of verbal communication to the patient’s pain assessment. However, they usually confine the assessment to asking one question only, such as, are you experiencing any pain at present? This can be misinterpreting as the patient may be pain free lying still in bed, yet the patient may be experiencing pain on activity. In order to improve the management of pain in practice, continuous education of improving communication skills must be enforced into the clinical setting. A number of communication barriers such as deafness, blindness, and disorientated, confused and cognitive impaired persons can further complicate the assessment process. It is important to compensate for the auditory and visual impairments that the individual may have. While assessing and monitoring the patient, the nurse must position her/his face in view of the patient, speak in a slow and normal tone of voice, use large print size, and provide written instructions and aids such as glasses or hearing aids. Pain assessment should be considered a greater challenge amongst the elderly as these patients more commonly present with communication barriers. Such barriers include deafness, blindness, and cognitive impaired, unconscious and disorientated individual. Pain assessment tools are designed to suit patients with various communication barriers. Health care professionals must choose the appropriate assessment tool that would best suit the individual in pain. For example, a visual analogue scale may be more suitable for a deaf individual. The abbey scale is specially designed for the cognitive impaired individual. The nurse must validate the pain and believe that the pain is as bad as the patient reports it to be. Nurses have a tendency not to validate the patient’s pain. They tend to overestimate lower levels of pain and underestimate more severe pain. If the nurse places him or herself in the role of the family member, they may become more sensitive to the patients needs and his or her experience of pain. Commonly the nurses distance themselves from the patient which results in the nurses failing to recognize the patient’s needs. Nurses have a tendency to block communication with patients who are terminally ill or patients who have chronic pain. This is because they believe they cannot do much for the patient. Efforts to improve professionals collaboration skills with the terminally ill patients and chronically ill is fundamental. Clearly continuing education that integrates helping nurses become more sensitive to patient pain may have an important role in facilitating nurses to develop better assessment skills. Health care professional’s poor pain assessment A good assessment is the cornerstone of good control of distressing symptoms. Yet, current pain assessment practices leave much to be desired. The underestimation of the patient’s pain seems to be problematic in current practice. Nurses have developed a tendency to interfere about a person’s pain on a basis of what they observe. This may be acceptable if they confirm the validity of the interferences with the patient, however this is not happening. Poor use of verbal cues Health care professionals frequently observe patients behaviors and activities when assessing pain and consider non verbal cues as being reliable indicators of pain intensity. However, it is easy to misinterpret non verbal cues. For example the nurse tends to only regard pain as intense or severe if the patients show real intense behavioral signs. The nurse assumes the patient is pain free if such intense behavior signals are absent. Nurses need to take into account that each patient will have a unique response to pain which will be influenced by many factors including cultural beliefs and religious morals. Such patients will exhibit expressive pain behaviors such as crying and moaning, where others may adapt a stoical approach and will not express their suffering outwardly. The presence of pain is therefore not always obvious from the patient’s facial expression and non verbal cues should not be regarded as reliable indicators of pain. If health care professionals place emphasizes on non verbal cues and make interferences on the basis of what they observe, it is not surprising that they yet tend to underestimate the intensity of patients pain and over estimate the effectiveness of interventions. The use of measurement tools which provide patients with a means of quantifying their pain experience is one way of overcoming this problem in practice. However, the under use of assessment tools is a problem that needs to be addressed. Interviewing the patient who is experiencing pain is a critical component of assessment since it provides patients with an opportunity to express not only intensity of their pain but also what it means to them and the effect it has on their lives. Constraints to developing a therapeutic relationship with the patient Pain assessment should be viewed as a unique opportunity for the nurse to use effective communication skills and spend time to build a relationship with the patient. This may encourage patients to express their fears or concerns, enhancing patient assessment and therefore improving the overall goals of care. However, staff shortages and time constraints often make it difficult for the nurse to spent time with the patient and hence it is difficult to build a thrusting relationship with the patient. The fact that there is a high turnover of patients in the hospital means that nurses have little opportunity to establish and sustain a good therapeutic relationship with the patient and family.

Hard Work: Remaking the American Labor Movement By Rick Fantasia and Kim Voss Essay

Hard Work: Remaking the American Labor Movement, by Rick Fantasia and Kim Voss, was published by the University of California Press in 2004. It runs to 259 pages. This book deals with the failures of the American Labor Movement to keep pace with the needs of American workers. It explains how the movement failed when it seemed like it was on the road to success and why it is in the lethargic state in which it finds itself today. It chronicles the attempts being made today to salvage what is left of the movement and its attempts to become a force fighting for social justice in America. One recurring theme of this book is that the people who consider themselves to be both progressive and liberal are constantly amazed that so little they have done and/or advocated has come to fruition or made any difference. They seem stunned to learn that their theories do not work in actual practice. The book documents the actions being initiated in today’s society in an attempt to get off high-center and get on the road to success necessary to keep the American Dream alive. What is now known as the New Economy as proposed by the Neo-liberals has contributed to the steady erosion of worker’s rights and benefits. Fantasia and Voss examine the dot com industry with particular scrutiny, blaming it for the loss of enormous numbers of jobs. The book examines such companies as Amazon, demonstrating how a vast corporation, doing millions in business can be operated with the use of relatively few unskilled and low paid employees, giving them obscene profits and very little overhead. The authors believe that such companies are the wave of the future and if allowed to truly globalize they will be extremely deleterious to workers around the world. They call the New Economy a ‘direct attack on labor’. This book reveals that a key element in many industrialized nations, which is lacking here, is that labor gains are not on a national level, meaning that unions and workers must fight for each concession on a company-by-company basis. In much of the rest of the world a gain by workers is held to be a gain for every worker in that country. The authors trace the history of the union movements for over one hundred years in America. They show that any sort of radicalism displayed by unions or workers was systematically eradicated. They show that what was left in place in each case was a tepid version of what could have been and the result was, intrinsically, a labor union which was in bed with the big corporations, allowing them to strip workers of their rights and fair benefits. This, the authors say, gave labor leaders the idea they were in some sort of perverse partnership with management to the ruin of the workers. Out of this rose the duality of leadership seen in this country. There came to be leadership that ruled by one of two ways, one, a strongman leader, whose ruled a personal fiefdom by decree and the other the bureaucrat in what the authors called the era of tame unionism, which was benign in an era when it should have stood shoulder-to-shoulder in solidarity with its members. During the Reagan era employers realized they were in the drivers’ seats and stripped rights and benefits to the bone while the government stood by or actively abetted them, as did the union leadership. The major premise of this book is that labor must re-invent itself in order to be relevant again. Corporate America is committed to the New Economy, which will never do anything for the worker but further erode any gains made in the past century. American unions and American workers must, the premise goes, regain their initiative and hang solidly together or they will, to paraphrase Benjamin Franklin, all hang separately, so to speak. There are numerous ways of going about rebuilding labor into a potent force for the good of the workers and some of these methods are being seen. There is a tactic known in labor jargon as â€Å"‘bargaining to organize’ and it has become one important tactic of social movement unionists,† (Fantasia, Voss 2004 p 154). During the 1990s labor struck some of Las Vegas’ casinos with mixed results, but what was telling in that situation was that the city’s Black population sided with labor and did much in solidarity with the workers. The strike won at one of the casinos but a second strike dragged on for over six years, making it the longest strike in American history, post World War II. The strike had its moments of high drama and on one occasion a mass demonstration of over twenty thousand people. The unions in Las Vegas actively recruited new members even during the height of the strike. It drew worldwide attention and favorable press for the unions. This, the authors say, is going to continue to be necessary in the future and unions are going to have to actively recruit and actively promote their message. With a strong recruiting drive and overt actions to revitalize what has become a moribund movement in the last few years. Unions must secure leadership from within their own ranks and see that these leaders are not in bed with Corporate America. Fantasia and Voss paint a rather bleak picture of American Labor, as it now exists. They seem to be somewhat optimistic for the future, however, by assuming that a social conscience will develop in this country and the unions will begin to make inroads into the New Economy, forcing corporations to deal with the rights of the working man. They detail some specific innovations designed to fight the domination by the large corporations, addressing such matters as working hours and conditions as well as the incredible disparity between workers’ salaries and executive compensation. There must come a new type of union for workers to be protected in the New Economy and the globalization of corporations. The authors refer to this new union, expected to rise like a phoenix from the ashes the old unions, as more a social order than what is generally thought of as a true labor union. Not to draw parallels, but it was the Polish Union, Solidarity, which brought down the communist government and freed Poland of its mind boggling bureaucratic red tape and the morass of regulations which kept the Polish workers in virtual servitude to the state. The future is not all sunshine and lollipops, however. â€Å"†¦labor retreats from movement building and the percentage of unionized labor force continues to fall,† (162). Not only will this be a disaster for workers, for it will soon reach the point where only a privileged few will have any union strength, such as government employees and professional athletes, with the rest of the workers vanishing off the radar screen. American labor, once the beacon of hope to workers around the world, will become like that of a third world nation and the workers will fight for the peanuts tossed about by their corporate masters. Not only will the worker lose all that he once had in the workplace, the unions’ once powerful voice in American politics, notably in the Democratic Party will cease to exist and the party will no longer pay any attention to the demands of the working man and woman for parity and job security. There will no incentive for them to bow to any demands for the union will no longer be able to deliver on either the threat of the carrot or the stick. The authors point out that not only will labor lose its clout on such social issues as minimum wage and job safety, but will eventually lose any ability to weigh in on such matters as free trade agreements and other policies directly affecting the American worker. This country has changed drastically since September 11, and has taken on a siege mentality. It is virtually being ruled by decree of a man who has assumed war-time powers and seems to believe that if something he does is unconstitutional then obviously the constitution needs to be changed. During his first (and disputed) term in office he was abetted by a rubber stamp congress of Republicans and dragged the nation into a disastrous foreign war for dubious reasons which have since been found to be lies and intentional obfuscations. Primarily, however, the union has much more difficulties in such a political climate for it is always difficult to organize and foment change in times of social upheaval and economic downturn (163). The national debt is in the trillions of dollar. â€Å"The context of severe national emergency has been the pretext for invoking the mantle of national security against unions in an effort to accomplish the long term Republican Party goal of denying the right of federal employees to join unions,† (163). The current administration is actively engaged in what Fantasia and Voss refer to as ‘a low intensity war’ on American labor and workers are seeing the result of this ongoing battle. The outcome of this attempt to revitalize labor is by no means certain. One ray of sunshine is that college students today are beginning to see what is happening and they are developing a social conscience such as they have demonstrated in the past for other causes. They have made a difference before. The Labor Union is not dead although it is severely bloodied. Fantasia and Voss seem to think there are two possible futures and which one will occur is largely up to the success or failure of the labor movement.

State of Washington Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

State of Washington - Essay Example The state’s efforts to conserve the natural resources have sustained the ecological balance in this country. In the industrial sector, the country has grown considerably by engaging in mining, manufacturing, mining and many other agricultural activities. The cumulative impact of these activities is that Washington has experienced great economic development in the recent past. Climate is one of the most important aspects of state that determines the economic activities of the public. Washington lies in the sub-tropic zone and experience four seasons that include winter, summer, autumn and spring. These season show distinct weather patterns that impact on the countries climatic changes. The spring is warm period and the country experiences high temperatures, unlike in winter which is humid and cold. As compared to other countries, Washington is humid going up to a maximum of 66% within a year. Summers are rather hot and the temperatures rise up to 26.6 degrees Celsius. The country has adverse weather patterns often characterized with hurricanes and blizzards, although they are unpredictable within the year. (Pressman & Wildavsky, 1999). These weather patterns have become a challenge for the countries as they determine the periods of farming as rarely do crops survive the cold seasons. In Washington, there a wide range of natural resources ranging from forests, minerals, land forms and water. The forests in Washington include capitol state forest, Tiger mountain state forest and the Yacolt Burn forest. These forests remain evergreen due to minimum interference from the public. The Washington’s national forest foundation has put regulation measures against the abuse of forest through human activities. Also, this body has emphasized on the need for forest development through establishment of man-made forests. In addition, the country has many water bodies that have contributed to the development of this

HOW WAS THE TRIPARTITE FINANCIAL SYSTEM CREATED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Essay

HOW WAS THE TRIPARTITE FINANCIAL SYSTEM CREATED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND IT'S ROLE IF ANY IN THE CREDIT CRUNCH (BUSINESS AND LAW SUBJECTS) - Essay Example In fact it is found that the credit crisis is actually the result of poor regulatory process of these countries’ financial systems. This research is all about the Tripartite Financial System which was developed in UK in 1997. Prior to the period of recent financial crisis, it was apparently seemed that the system is quite effective in maintaining the stability in the UK financial system. However once the credit crisis started the actual effectiveness of the tripartite system came out. This research is started with a proper plan. A specific research statement is developed. Aims and objectives of the research are then properly identified. Precise research strategy and philosophy have been followed throughout the research. Data are collected in the pre-defined ways. A well structured literature review includes the detailed description of the topic. Finally the research ends with a proper conclusion. This research mainly focuses on the Tripartite Financial System and its role in the recent credit crunch in UK. The specific research statement is â€Å"how tripartite financial system was created in UK and its part in credit crunch†. The major aim and objective of this research is to identify all those processes and incidents that led to the formation of tripartite financial system. Furthermore the research also aims to find out the significance of this system in the recent credit crisis situation in United Kingdom. Each and every research is based on certain philosophy. In fact researches can be categorized into different types according to their philosophy. There are mainly two philosophical paradigm – phenomenological and positivist. In the first type of research, world is considered as an external object. Furthermore he/she should be independent. Most importantly in this type of research focus should be on facts. Furthermore the researcher should also focus on

Compare and contrast the total populations and total GDPs as well as Essay

Compare and contrast the total populations and total GDPs as well as the GDPs per capita - Essay Example Arabia has a total GDP of just $718.50bn (the highest in the OPEC Middle East Bloc), with GDP per capita of just $26.27, as compared to the highest GDP per capita of $100.51 in the Middle East Bloc (The World Fact Book, 2015). Interestingly, a good measure of wealth of a country is the GDP per capita, and that places Saudi Arabia at the third last slot in the list of OPEC Middle East Bloc, while a comparison with the GDP per capita of G7 nations leaves Saudi way below the country with the least GDP per capita in the G7 (Italy with a GDP per capita of $33.52). The G7 bloc has an average GDP per capita of $45.16 compared to a figure of just $14.11 portrayed by the OPEC Middle East Bloc. To much surprise, while the highest GDP amongst the two lots is that of the United States, Canada and US share a GDP per capita figure thanks to Canada’s low population as compared to its overall GDP. The highest population in the OPEC Middle East Bloc is found in Iran, at 80.84bn people, while the lowest is found if Qatar, at 2.12bn. Similarly, the highest population in the G7 as well as the OPEC Middle East Bloc is made up by USA (318.89bn), whereas the country with the lowest population in the G7 Bloc is Canada at 34.83bn people (The World Fact Book,

Use an example of your choice to discuss how corporate restructuring Essay - 3

Use an example of your choice to discuss how corporate restructuring transformed market, productive and financial performance - Essay Example The terms of the agreement are that Nokia will essentially transfer the whole of its Devices and Services business, which is the business division that makes Nokias cellular handsets, including all of the manufacturing facilities and more than 32,000 employees. This division is responsible for half of the total revenues of Nokia in 2012, and includes about 4,700 personnel who are based in Finland. That said, the deal does not include the portfolio of patents that Nokia has, which in essence will remain with Nokia, along with the Chief Office of Technology. This deal was approved by shareholders of Nokia in late 2013, and is touted by its leaders as the best alternative for the maximization of the value of the shareholders (Nokia 2013; Stoll 2014; Ricknas 2014; Microsoft 2013; Ando and Rigby 2013; Garside 2013; Shankland 2013; Easa 2014). The deal also includes the licensing of all of Nokias portfolio of patents in Nokias portfolio for a span of 10 years, but this will not be exclusive, meaning that Nokia reserves the right to license its patents to other parties, and to make use of the patents for its own product development and related business purposes. A substantial portion of the sale price, 1.65 billion euros, is for this patent deal, to which Microsoft has the option to extend after the decade-long agreement expires, and that extension privilege is indefinite in its extent in time. Part of the deal also licenses Nokias mapping platform HERE to Microsoft, over a period of four years, and this part of the deal is expected to generate revenues for Nokia equal to the amount of revenues that HERE generates within Nokia (Nokia 2013; Stoll 2014; Ricknas 2014; Microsoft 2013; Ando and Rigby 2013). The deal transforms Nokia into a company that was in financial trouble from the losses in its devices unit into a powerhouse of important patents in the telecoms space, as well as an important provider of telecommunications infrastructure in Nokia

Victim impact statement Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Victim impact statement - Term Paper Example It can be oral, presented by the victim, or a secondary party to the crime, during the hearing process, or can be written. If presented in a written form, the victim impact statement is handed in to the Attorney’s office. The office then submits the statement to the Probation Office and it is considered as part of retrieved evidence that the office offers to a presiding judge during a hearing. The definition of a victim impact statement also includes informal letters to a judge and this is an exception from the formal approach. It applies when the victim is not in a position to complete the formal process of presenting a written victim impact statement. The victim’s personal discomfort may lead to the need for a personal letter instead of the formal statement (Justice n.p.). Literature research The definition of victim impact statement identifies the objective communicating effects of a criminal act on the victim and other people who could have been round the crime scen e. Diversified purposes that the statement serves are identifiable from the purpose. One of the statement’s purposes is to offer the victim a chance to explain effects of the crime on their lives. Physical, emotional, and financial effects are the major types and explain the extent to which the victim’s rights were infringed by the crime and the need for justice. Crimes on a victim identify vulnerability that may persist after the crimes. The accused may also want to tamper with evidence in order to avoid punishment and this increases vulnerability to intimidation from the accused or associates. Victim impact statement helps in resolving the vulnerability by allowing the victim to point vulnerability concerns that the court can address towards justice. The concerns may relate to granting the accused bail or protecting the victim from possible harassment. Another role that the victim impact statement serves is offering an avenue through which the victim can obtain infor mation about his or her case. The victim needs to state in the statement such required information as the progress that the case has made. Victim impact statement also offers victims opportunities for informing relevant authorities of needs for claims or help. The suffered losses may warrant compensation or help towards recuperation and victims can state any related needs in the statement. Victim impact statement also avails statistics for understanding trends in crimes and effects of the crimes on victims. Such information can then influence decisions and policies for crime prevention and management of effects of crimes on victims (The Crown Prosecution Service 1). Implementation of the roles of victim impact statement follows stipulated principles for consistency with rule of law and natural justice. One of the principles governing the statement is admissibility of the effects. Losses that the victim suffers and the extent must be in such forms that the judicial system acknowledge s and can incorporate in making judgment. Admissibility is subject to existing laws. Another principle that governs application of the statement is incorporation of the effects in the basis for making decisions on a case. Judgment must however rely on other factors such as nature of the crime and the accused. Victims’ personal perspectives or those of the victims’ close associates do not however influence judicial decisions on cases (The Crown Prose

Puritan tiger beetle controversy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Puritan tiger beetle controversy - Essay Example upy beach regions, has been classified as endangered species because of reduced population level of the insects as a result of development along the beaches. Therefore, legislations have been passed in order to promote preservation of Puritan Tiger Beetle in their ecosystems, something that has not been received positively by people with economic interests along the beaches. This essay will discuss the controversy surrounding the preservation of Puritan Tiger Beetle and further explain actions that should be taken to effectively preserve the insects. To start with, the Puritan Tiger Beetles are insects with unique characteristics associated with the name of the insect. According to the Wildscreen Arkive, Puritan Tiger Beetles, whose scientific name is Cicindela puritan, are insects that prey on invertebrate organisms found along the beaches their long legs, tactics that can be associated to those used by tigers to capture their prey (n.d). The insects have brown- like color on their outermost covering and a blue-like color on their lower side (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013). In addition, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service states that the length of Puritan Tiger Beetles is estimated to be less than half-inch (2013). Of more concern, the distribution of Puritan Tiger Beetles is limited to only two regions namely â€Å"Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and along the Connecticut River in New England† (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013). This signifies the extent to which the distribution of Puritan Tiger Beetle species is limited. Secondly, the Puritan Tiger Beetles represent one of the most endangered species existing on earth to date. Entomologists from different parts of the world have demonstrated that insects are capable of inhabiting ecosystems that are distributed in different parts of the world. However, this has not been the case for the Puritan Tiger Beetles that inhabit small ecosystems found in the U.S. According to Wheeler, Maryland remains to be the

SLP2 599 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

SLP2 599 - Coursework Example Review of Joe Schome’s Strategies Joe did not change prices and research and development allocations for the products for a period of over six years. The strategy adopted was effective in that the company did not make losses. Products X5 and X6 registered profits for all the years. Product X7 made losses for the first three years. However, it improved in performance as the years progressed. Nonetheless, the strategy could not move the company to the next level as expected by Sally Smothers. Moreover, the sales, revenues earned and profits made by the products declined after two years. On the other hand, prices and total costs were maintained for all the years. This means that from the beginning, the profits and sales increased at declining rates. The price for X5 was maintained at $285 and there existed approximately six million customers. Additionally, market saturation was only 15%. However, performance declined and as competition increased, the profitability of X5 declined. By 2015, competition was stiff and market saturation was 94% (Mahajan, Yoram and Eitan 99). The profitability of X5 was only 17%. The price of X6 was also maintained at $430 for all the years. However, X6 also faced stiff competition and by 2015, market saturation was 93%. ... Moreover, it has a lower production cost when compared to the X5 and X6. It also improved in profitability. However, its improvement in performance was at a slow rate. Joe should have encouraged vigorous product development so that the company specializes in production of X7. Generally, Joe’s strategy did not consider the value of customer retention. Hence, first time customers for all the products are high yet repeat sales are low. This also shows that the research and development strategy was not very effective. Proposed Strategies For the first year, the price for X5 should be maintained at $ 285. The research and development allocation should also be maintained at 33%. This would enable the company to make a profit of 16%. In the second year, the company can maintain the price and X5 can be 30% profitable. In 2013, the company can reduce the price as competitors enter the market. This would assist the company to increase sales. The assumption is that the competitors also c harge $285 for X5. The company can charge $280 with the hope of increasing sales from 2,145,622 to 2,500,000. In 2014 and 2015, the company can reduce the price of X5 with the hope of increasing sales. It can also reduce the research and development allocation as it seems to be ineffective. The production of X5 should be discontinued in case customers do not respond positively to the reduction in prices by the end of 2015. This is because there would be stiff competition in 2016 and the number of customers would not be adequate to ensure recovery of production costs. Furthermore, X5 has a very short life cycle. The price of X6 should also be maintained at $430 in 2011and 2012. This would ensure

Ebay, A Company Analysis Essay Example for Free

Ebay, A Company Analysis Essay In August 2 ,1990, after Saddam Hussein’s military forces invaded and occupied Kuwait , there was large Iraqi military build up close the Saudi Arabia’s border. President Sr Bush perceived that Iraqi’s aggression and military build up was a serious threat not only to the security and independence of Saudi Arabia but also vital to US national interest in the Persian Gulf region. The main intention of Saddam Hussein was to control half of the world’s supply of Petroleum from Gulf region . Sr Bush initiated â€Å" Operation Desert Shield â€Å" and dispatched US military to Saudi Arabia to defend that country against a possible Iraqi attack. President Bush took bold decision and dispatched US troops to Saudi Arabia even without obtaining prior approval from US Congress. Later when reporting to Congress and Nation, Bush informed that he has acted in deference to Saudi Arabia’s specific request for American assistance in bolstering Saudi defenses and deterring possible Iraqi attack. To free the Kuwait from Iraqi occupation , President Bush ( Sr) rallied the support of United Nations by getting the U.N Security Council approval on November ,29,1990 to pass U.N. Resolution No 678 which authorized U.N members to use â€Å" all necessary means† to coerce Iraqi invaders from Kuwait , and to take military action if Iraq failed to withdraw from Kuwait by January 15,1991. OPERATION DESERT STORM: On January ,12,1991 , President Bush succeeded in getting Congress approval for the President use of â€Å" all necessary means â€Å" to carry out the UN Resolution 678. Now the President Bush had all the authority and support to persuade Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. On January16, after the Iraqi Government failed to withdraw its military forces from Kuwait by the deadline ,President ordered â€Å" Operation Desert Storm â€Å" and Iraqi forces were defeated and Kuwait was liberated. After Iraqi Government agreed to observe and comply with all U.N.Resolution , a ceasefire was ordered .Operation Desert Storm helped to destroy greater part of Iraq’s military machinery and Iraq’s claim to Kuwait. During June 1993, President Clinton ordered U.S. air strikes at Iraqi intelligence service headquarters at Iraq which had instigated and fostered a conspiracy to assassinate former U.S.President George Bush during his to Kuwait during April 14-16,1993. After the Persian Gulf War in 1991, the USA continued to engage economic as well as military conflict with Iraq. The main aim of the USA was to put an end to Saddam Hussein’s military regime in Iraq and to prevent Iraq becoming threat to international peace and U.S National interest in Middle East and to deny Saddam Hussein the opportunity to utilize Iraqi military to extinguish his political opponents among the Kurdish inhabitants of northern Iraq and among the Shi’ite Muslim marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq. The other main aim of US is to compel the Iraqi Government to honor its International obligations, including those relating to (1) The ban on the further development, productions and stockpiling of nuclear, biological, chemical and other weapons of mass destructions. (2) To call for the destruction of existing stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. (3)Recognition of and respect for the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of Kuwait, (4) Compliance with the terms of the ceasefire agreement ending the Persian Gulf War. The main objective of the continuing military presence and activity of the USA and its allies in the Middle East –the Southwest Asia / Northeast Africa / Persian Gulf region is to prevent the Iraq regime and military forces from jeopardizing international peace and US National interest in the region. The other main aim was to prevent Iraq from threatening the security and independence of neighboring countries such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia and from endangering US access and that of the other industrialized nations to the oil of the Middle East, the region which has over 70% of the Globe’s known petroleum reserves. During early October , 1994, US decided to drawdown its troops in the middle east in a phased manner , Saddam Hussein ordered the movement of his troops towards southward and headed in the direction of Kuwait. As a result, there was a significant Iraqi military build up along the Kuwait border. Saddam Hussein action clearly demonstrated his capacity to threaten neighboring countries and imperil the industrialized West’s access to Middle Eastern petroleum. Saddam Hussein action also revealed about lack of trustworthiness and his determination to violate the terms of the ceasefire agreement ending the Persian Gulf War. Again, UN Security Council had passed a resolution on October, 15, 1994 condemning the Iraq Government for the deployment of troops along the Kuwait Border. Bill Clinton, who was then the President of USA, deployed US Reinforcements on the Kuwait border to Iraq to counter the Hussein’s troops. Because of the strong and determined US response, Saddam Hussein backed down and withdrew all the troops from Kuwait border. Because of the defused environment, US also ordered the withdrawal of its troops from Kuwait. OPERATION DESERT STRIKE. In early 1996, Saddam Hussein began to initiate military actions which demonstrated that his predisposition toward making mischief in the Middle East had not really abated. The Iraqi despot dispatched his military forces into the Kurdish region of Iraq, seeking to regain political control over Iraqi territory .Saddam Hussein military invaded the region of north of the 36th parallel ,captured Irbil and pursued and attacked Kurdish refugees . Bill Clinton responded to Iraqi aggression by initiating Operation Desert Strike. However Operation Desert Strike was not as vigorous as it might have been because US response was to take action affecting Iraqi military positions and matters far from the battlefield in Northern Iraq. In short , US abandoned the Kurds and failed to live up to the obligation to protect and defend against Iraqi aggression over the region north of the 36th parallel , where thousands of members of groups opposed to Hussein’s rein were operating and functioning under the guidance of the US Central Intelligence Agency. The reason for the not taking stringent action during Iraq’s aggression against Kurds in 1996 by Clinton was mainly due to forth coming Federal elections which due during November, 1996. US ELECTION -1996 President Clinton however managed to keep the Iraq issue out of the 1996 elections to enhance his reelection chances. However, Saddam took it as US weakness and started to continue his endeavor to circumvent, erode the strength of USA. Saddam soon began a series of challenges to the system of UN Sanctions and inspection imposed on his regime to prevent if from developing, producing and stock piling weapons of mass destruction .Saddam’s continuous resistance to the UN WMD Program and its implementation came to a peak in January, 1998 when he expelled the US members of UNSCOM, the UN Weapons Inspection team. OPERATION DESERT FOX: From 1997 onwards, Saddam tried to obstruct the UN weapons inspection program in Iraq. He frequently protracted military confrontation with the USA and its allies. At one stage, he expelled the most of the US members of the weapons inspection team and because of this action, UN Security Council threatened to reinstate economic sanction against Iraq and Saddam never took serious of the warning issued by UN Security Council. In protest, the United Nations recalled the other inspection team members. The non cooperation from Saddam resulted in American –British military build –up in the Persian Gulf. This had effect of attitude of Saddam and it induced him to back down short while and he readmitted the weapons inspectors, including those from the USA. In November, 1997, Iraqi regime gave notice that it would not permit the U.N inspectors to enter and inspect sites at designated â€Å"palaces and designated residences â€Å" ECONOMIC SANCTION: In January, 1998, Saddam Hussein again expelled the U.S. members of the U.N weapons inspection team. The UN again protested by withdrawing the other inspectors and due to this a standoff continued and tensions were heightened. The UN Security Council imposed economic sanctions on Iraq. Again, a US military build up in the Persian Gulf commenced. In February, 1998, U.N Secretary General –General Kofi Annan negotiated an agreement whereby the Iraqi regime allowed readmission of U.N inspectors and resumption of the weapons inspection program. In return for this concession, the Iraqi government was given assurance that the Security Council would consider lifting the economic sanctions. The UN Weapons inspectors team did not receive full support from Iraqi regime during this period as Iraq claimed that the Security Council had shown no signs of taking steps for the removal of sanctions imposed .On October ,1998 Saddam again terminated the work of the UN Inspection team at Iraq. This has resulted again in building up of military presence by American –British in the Persian Gulf. On November 5, 1998, United Nations recalled UN Inspection team assigned to Iraq. Again Saddam yielded and allowed the UN inspection team in Iraq. But this was short lived .Again on December .1998, the UN team once again left Iraq.UN report dated 15th December .1998 charged the Iraqi Government for non cooperation and denial of access to records and inspection sites and through clandestine movement of equipment and records from site to site. OPERATION DESERT FOX : Based on the UN report. President Clinton decided to take military action against Iraq. The operation was named as Operation Desert Fox, a massive campaign of air strikes against key military and security targets in Iraq .Several targets were attacked in this operation including head quarters of Saddam Baath Party, barracks of the sad dam’s elite security guards, republic guard barracks and his daughter’s palace at Tikirt. The main goals of the Operation Desert Fox were (1) to degrade Saddam ability to make and use of weapons of mass destruction .(2) to diminish Saddam ability to wage war against his neighbors and (3) to demonstrate the consequences of flouting International obligations. President Clinton terminated Operation Desert Fox after three days as it had inflicted significant damage on Saddam WMD programs and his military and security infrastructure. and Iraq’s missile programme had been set back by at least 12 months and its military might had been substantially damaged. President Clinton ordered at the end of December ,1998 to draw down the U.S. forces in the Persian Gulf .But it is to be noted Operation Desert Box though successful but could not compel the Iraqi regime to accept and cooperate with the U.N.Weapons inspection program. GAME OF CHICKEN: This encouraged Saddam Hussein to play the dangerous â€Å" game of Chicken â€Å" with USA and its allies. Saddam Hussein continued to play hide and seek game with U.S.A , its Allies and with UN by defying the west and jeopardize its interests in the Middle East. He yielded temporarily when threatened with or subjected to western military attack. He reneged on the International commitments which he made in order to avoid or end a western military assault against his political regime and military / security forces. After the end of the operation Desert Fox , the U.S.A and its allies have engaged in a low level war with Iraq. The main aim of US to give protection to the Kurdish and Shi’ite minorities in Iraq from suppression and genocide from Saddam. The other aim is to replace Saddam region by another leader or group of leaders favorably disposed to US. In waging war with the Iraq , President Clinton has been acting in compliance with the reporting requirements of section 4 of the War powers Act of U.S.A. The President has been periodically reporting to Congress on the Status of U.S hostilities with the Iraqi regime and on other matters relating to the hostilities. Bill Clinton pursued a policy of belligerence towards Iraq , imposing crippling economic sanctions , undertaking the most sustained bombing campaign after Vietnam war and making â€Å" regime change† in Iraq as official US Policy. US POLICIES UNDER BUSH REGIME: A secret blue print for US global domination reveals that President Bush and his cabinet were planning a premeditated attach on Iraq to secure â€Å" regime change â€Å" even before he took power in January 2001. A plan called â€Å"Global Pax Americana â€Å"was drawn mainly to take control of the Persian Gulf region sans Saddam Hussein region while civil government was reestablished. It is to be noted that war was initiated on the main ground that Iraq was non cooperative in allowing inspection of weapons of mass destruction. However, in the aftermath of war, it became apparent that Saddam had no such weapons programme. Many Americans including prominent members of the Congress, claim Bush and his administration lied or misled the country based on doctored intelligence reports. The Bush Administration also linked the invasion of Iraq to the war on Terrorism, claiming that Hussein was giving safe heaven to and supporting terrorist groups. There were also accusation that Saddam was indirectly supported the September 11, 2001 attacks on America. It is to be noted that although the Bush administration strongly suggested ties at some level between Hussein and Al-Qaeda, it did not accuse Saddam of complicity in the specific events of 9/11 events. POST INVASION OF IRAQ: Military occupation was established and run by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) Which later appointed and granted limited powers to an Iraq interim Governing Council. Coalition and allied Iraqi forces have been fighting a stronger –than –expected militant Iraqi insurgency and hence ,the reconstruction of Iraq has been slow . In mid -2004, the end of the occupation was brought about and a new sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq assumed the full responsibility and authority of the State. The CPA and the Governing Council were disbanded on June 28, 2004 and a new transitional constitution came into effect. Sovereignty was transferred to a Governing Council Iraqi interim Government led by Iyad Allawi as Iraq’s first post-Saddam Prime Minister. But this Government can make laws only with the approval of CPA. The Iraqi interim Government was replaced as a result of elections which took place in January, 2005. A period of negotiations by the elected Iraqi National Assembly was followed which culminated on April 6,2005 with the selection of the leaders who currently head Iraq among them Prime Minister Ibrahim al –Jaafari and President Jalal Talabani. The multinational forces still exercise considerable power in the Country and with the New Iraqi Army, conduct military operations against the Iraqi insurgency .The role of Iraqi government forces in providing security is increasing. CONTINUING INSURGENCY: Even though, the Ba’ath Party organization was disintegrated, elements of the Secret police and Saddam army began forming guerilla units and focused attacks around Mosul, Tikrit, Fallujah .These elements who called themselves freedom fighters began using ambush tactics, suicide bombings and improvised explosive devices, targeting coalition forces and check points. Suicide bombers believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunnis, Syrians and Saudis tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations mainly of Shias, OPERATION METADOR: During early May, 2005, the U.S launched Operation Matador, an .assault in the ungoverned region of western Iraq. Its goal was the closing of suspected insurgent supply routes of volunteers and material from Syria .The US allies succeeded in recapturing the whole area and even fighting the insurgents all the way to the Syrian border , where they were blocked . PARTICIPATING NATIONS IN THE MULTI NATIONAL ARMY IN IRAQ: As of September, 2005, there were 26 countries with military forces stationed in Iraq. These were Albania, Armenia, Australia , Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria ,Czech Republic , Denmark ,El Salvador , Estonia , Georgia , Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania , Macedonia ,Mongolia , Netherlands ,Norway, Poland ,Romania, Slovakia, South Korea, United Kingdom , United States, Fiji and Ukraine. Poland, the Netherlands, Norway, Bulgaria and Ukraine have announced plans to withdraw. CONCLUSION: The Kerry campaign in Presidential election against George Bush charged that US is acting as neo-colonial power and claimed that US bungled the war due to incompetence , mismanagement and arrogance .Designed to advance US commercial and corporate interest abroad , military force was often used to break open markets that resisted diplomatic and economic pressures. â€Å" The Carter Doctrine† as it become known , made it clear the United States would use military power in the Gulf to secure and maintain the oil resources needed to turn of the wheels of the Empire. This policy explains the US sale of heavy weaponry to Saddam Hussein in the early 1980’s when war broke out between Iraq and Iran. US took many efforts to normalize relationship with Iraq then .Despite Saddam’s use of Chemical against Iran and Kurdish population in northern Iraq, the United States continued to back Iraq .Emboldened by these signs of support for his regime, Saddam invaded Kuwait in 1990.The first Bush administration however quickly came to view the invasion as a threat to US supremacy in the region and launched the first Gulf War. Sanctions were imposed by the UN at the behest of US in order to secure US control over Iraq’s Oil. The United States did not care about the â€Å"fact† that the sanctions have apparently killed hundreds of thousands of Iraqi’s by withholding necessary food supplies and medical supplies. Madeline Albright ,the US ambassador to UN ,when asked that more than 500,000 children had died because of a lack of adequate nutrition and medical care, replied â€Å" I think this is a very hard choice ,but the price-we think-the price. The American’s gross ignorance of conditions in Iraq was shown by their miscalculation in relation to the Shiites in the South. They thought that the latter would rise up against Saddam Hussein and welcome the invaders with open arms. But none of this happened Napoleon knew a lot about bayonets and found many uses for them, but there is one thing they can not be used for , as he pointed out: You can not sit on bayonets. The Americans and British do not have a real base of support in Iraq. A long term guerrilla war waged with low-tech methods like sniping, ambushes and suicide bombings can have a devastating effect over a long period if it has the backing of the people –and it will . Though the US is a super power, it is to be remembered that it was defeated by barefoot army in Vietnam. The Great Britain was once the land of rising sun has to vacate their colonies in all most all countries due to upsurge of the subjects of that nation. After Iraq , US is now concentrating how to destabilize Syria on the pretext of extending military aid to Baghdad and harboring escaping Ba’athist leaders ,but also of possessing weapons of mass destructions. Again US is also try to destabilize the Iran by accusing that it is under the way to add nuclear arsenals which is going to be great threat to world peace. The number of causalities in the Iraq’s war is alarming .US alone lost 2105 innocent Americans (soldiers) and Allies lost 201 and innocent Iraqis killed was around 30,420 . Who is going to be father or brother or care taker of the innocent family which lost their life in the war . To prove its mightiness, innocent lives have been lost and do the US or its allies are going to answer the cries and hues of foresaid the families who have lost their dear and near for the nation. Let alone history has to tell us what is Iraq’s fate and political independence in the near future. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1.Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy- by Ole R.Holsti. 2.The Dynamics of Coercion – American Foreign Policy and the limits of the Military Might-by Daniel Byman , Matthew C.Waxman. 3.The Iraq war and its consequences :Thoughts of Nobel Peace Laureates and Eminent scholars.- edited by Irwin Abrams, Wang -Gung –Wu. 4. Wars on Terrorism and Iraq :by Mary Robinson. 5.Today ,Iraq – Tomorrow –The World ? –by Gill Hinshaw

Evolution of Australian Flora: Hymenopteran Visual Systems

Evolution of Australian Flora: Hymenopteran Visual Systems Abstract Very little work has been done on the evolution of floral colour diversity, outside of Europe and the Middle East. In particular, we know almost nothing about the evolution of the Australian flora in the context of hymenopteran visual systems. Such a study is likely to be important due to the geologically long isolation of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. The aims of this study were to investigate the colour of Australian native flowers in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the innate colour preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria), and the interactions between native bees and a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). Firstly, I found that the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans match up with floral colour diversity and that hymenopterans appear to have been a major contributor to flower colour evolution in Australia. Secondly, I found that Trigona carbonaria has innate preferences for wavelengths of 422, 437 a nd 530 nm. Thirdly, I found that bees were able to habituate to orchid flowers based on colour, thus potentially explaining the colour polymorphism of Caladenia carnea. Together, my study suggests that the evolution of the Australian flora has been influenced by hymenopterans. 1. Introduction Plant-pollinator interactions The mutual interactions between pollinators and plants have been suspected in driving angiosperm radiation and diversification in the past (Regal 1977; Crepet 1984; McPeek 1996). The obvious mutual benefit is that pollinators depend on the pollen and/or nectar of flowering plants for food and, in return, partake in the incidental transfer of pollen necessary for plant reproduction (Faegri and van der Pijl 1978; Harder, Williams et al. 2001). Worldwide, it is estimated that more than 67% of angiosperm plants rely on pollination by insects (Tepedino 1979). Hence, pollinators play a critical role in the persistence and survival of flowering plants, which are of high value to the human food chain (Kearns and Inouye 1997; Klein, Vaissiere et al. 2007). Flower colour signals and sensory exploitation Colour is the result of the visible light being absorbed or reflected off objects and then processed by the eye and brain of an animal (Le Grand 1968). Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and can be quantified by the wavelength of different photons of energy (Bueche 1986). The wavelengths reflected off the object are perceived by a visual system as the object’s colour. For example, light that appears blue to a human observer can be described by a dominant wavelength of 400nm, whilst light that appears red is 700nm. Ultraviolet light falls between 300-400nm and can be seen by bees, but not humans. Flower colours have been influenced by the sensory receptors of insects, including their colour vision, which is different to human vision. Humans have a red, blue and green receptor (Chittka and Wells 2004). In contrast insects have a UV, green and blue receptor (Chittka and Wells 2004). As human vision is very different to a hymenopterans’ colour visual system, one cannot discuss a bees’ colour perception according to human colour terms such as red or blue. Therefore, this thesis will discuss colours according to wavelength. Colour is one of the most important floral signals plants use to communicate information to insect pollinators (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996; Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008). Although it is known that pollinators select flowers based on morphology, nectar availability, size, and odour (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1994; Kunze and Gumbert 2001; Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001; Whitney and Glover 2007), colour is known to play a critical role in enabling pollinators to detect and discriminate target flowers from a biologically important distance of up to 50 cm (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996; Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008). Our understanding of the evolution of colour vision in insects has advanced considerably in recent years. In the past, studies of colour perception were limited due to little information on the colour visual system of insects (Frisch 1914; Daumer 1956). It is now possible to evaluate how flower visual signals appear to the visual system of hymenopteran pollinators, using spectrophotometer and colorimetry techniques, which allows quantitative evaluations of how complex colour information is perceived by insect pollinators (Chittka 1992) (fig. 1). Previous research has revealed that colour discrimination in hymenopterans is phylogenetically ancient, with different hymenopterans sharing similar colour perception (Helversen 1972; Chittka and Menzel 1992). Importantly, colour discrimination in the hymenoptera is known to predate the evolution of floral colour diversity (Chittka 1996). Here, recent research has revealed remarkable convergence in the evolution and distribution of floral colours in different parts of the world. Specifically, in a seminal paper, Chittka (1996) showed that flowering plants in both Europe and the Middle East have adapted their colour signals to the visual systems of bees, with flower colours in these regions closely matched to the visual receptors of hymenopterans (Chittka 1996). However, outside of Europe and the Middle East, very little work has been done on the evolution of floral colour diversity. In particular, we know almost nothing about the evolution of the Australian flora in the context of hy menopteran visual systems. This is an important question to investigate due to the long isolation of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. I hypothesise that the Australian floral coloration will closely match the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans as recent evidence suggests that insect pollinators supported the early spread of flowering plants (Hu, Dilcher et al. 2008). Innate colour preferences of bees Charles Darwin was the first to state that innate preferences could allow an inexperienced pollinator to find a food source (Darwin 1877). Pollinators may use certain traits of flowers such as morphology, scent, temperature and colour to locate food (Heinrich 1979; Menzel 1985; Dyer, Whitney et al. 2006; Raine, Ings et al. 2006). Previous studies evaluating innate colour preferences have tended to focus on two species: the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). By contrast, no studies have looked at the innate colour preferences of Australian bees and how this affects their choices for flowers. We know that European bumblebees and honeybees show strong preferences for violet and blue (400-420nm) throughout their geographic range (Chittka, Ings et al. 2004) ,which interestingly correlates with the most profitable food sources (Lunau and Maier 1995; Chittka and Raine 2006). These preferences are likely to have had an impact on the relative success of dif ferent flower colours in regions where these bees are dominant pollinators (Chittka and Wells 2004). Consequently, information on the innate preferences of Australian bees will be important to understand hymenopteran plant interactions in the Australian context. Pollinator learning and food deceptive orchids Most plants reward their pollinators with nectar or pollen. However, some species do not offer floral rewards and, instead, employ a range of deceptive techniques to trick insects into performing the task of pollination. Deceptive pollination strategies are particularly well known and widespread among orchids (Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2006). For instance, approximately 400 orchid species are known to achieve pollination through sexual deceit, luring unsuspecting male insects to the flower through olfactory, visual and tactile mimicry of potential mates. More common are food deceptive orchids which are believed to number as many as 6,000 species (one-third of orchids) (Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2009). Food mimicking orchids employ bright colours to falsely advertise the presence of a reward to attract naive pollinators (Ackerman 1986; Nilsson 1992; Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2006). The common occurrence of food deception in orchids suggests that this form of pollinat ion by deception is an extremely successful evolutionary strategy (Cozzolino and Widmer 2005). Visits by pollinators to deceptive plants are influenced by pollinator learning. In the case of sexual deception, previous research shows that insects quickly learn unrewarding flower decoys and avoid them. For example, male insects learn to avoid areas containing sexually deceptive orchids (Peakall 1990; Wong and Schiestl 2002). However, whether insects can learn to avoid food deceptive orchids remains to be investigated. In addition, high levels of variability in floral traits, particularly flower colour and floral scent, may interrupt the associative learning of insects by preventing their ability to become familiar with deceptive flowers (Schiestl 2005). Indeed, variation in colour, shape and fragrance is evident in non-model food-deceptive orchids (Moya and Ackerman 1993; Aragà ³n and Ackerman 2004; Salzmann, Nardella et al. 2007). However, previous studies have only looked at pollinator preference for colour morphs (Koivisto, Vallius et al. 2002), rather than assessing if vari able flower colour slows down the ability of naive pollinators to learn unrewarding flower decoys. Furthermore, there is a need to incorporate a combination of colour vision science and behavioural ecology to understand how a bee perceives the orchid flowers, as bees have a different visual system to humans. Although humans cannot see ultra-violet light, UV sensitivity is common in some animals (Tovà ©e 1995). UV sensitivity has been found in insects, birds, fish and reptiles (Marshall, Jones et al. 1996; Neumeyer and Kitschmann 1998; Cuthill, Partridge et al. 2000; Briscoe and Chittka 2001). Studies on UV vision in an ecological context have mainly focused on species specific signalling and mate choice (Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1996; Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1997; Pearn 2001; Cummings, Garc et al. 2006). However, few studies have looked at the role of UV signals in attracting bees to orchids. Previous studies have shown that the presence of UV reflecting crab spiders attracts honeybees to daisies (Heiling, Herberstein et al. 2003). In a similar study, Australian native bees (Austroplebia australis) were attracted but did not land on flowers with UV reflecting crab spiders (Heiling and Herberstein 2004). However, the role of UV signals in orchids is not well studied. In particular, it is not known if the UV signal is important in attracting naive bees to food deceptive orchids. Thus, it will be useful to know if UV signals might also serve to lure naive pollinators to deceptive flowers to understand deceptive pollination. Aims This project will investigate Australian flower colour diversity in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the innate colour preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria) and their interactions with a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). This study aims to address the following questions: 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? 3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonar 2. Methods Part 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? Flower collection and spectral reflectance functions of Australian native plant flowers Australian native flowers were collected from Maranoa Gardens, Balwyn (melway ref 46 F7). Maranoa Gardens was chosen due to the diverse collection of species from all over Australia. Flowers were collected once a month, from May to January. A colour photograph was taken of the flower for identification. I also took a UV photograph for all flowers, using a digital UV camera [Fuji Finepix Pro S3 UVIR modified CCD for UV imaging] with calibrated UV-vis grey scales (Dyer, Muir et al. 2004). As UV rays are invisible to the human eye (Menzel and Blakers 1976; Dyer 2001), this photo enabled any UV reflectance areas of the flower to be measured by the spectrophotometer (Indsto, Weston et al. 2006). The spectral reflection functions of flowers were calculated from 300 to 700 nm using a spectrophotometer(S2000) with a PX-2 pulsed xenon light source attached to a PC running SpectraSuite software (Ocean Optics Inc., Dunedin, FL, USA). The spectrophotometer was used to quantify the colour of the flower as wavelength. The white standard was a freshly pressed pellet of dry BaSO4, used to calibrate the spectrophotometer. A minimum of three flowers from each plant were used for each spectral analysis. I evaluated a sample of 111 spectral measurements from Australian flowering plants, encompassing a representative variety of plant families (fig. 2). Correlations between spectral reflectance functions of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybees To understand if there is a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian native flowers, I used the methodology used by Chittka and Menzel (1992). In that study, Chittka and Menzel looked for correlations between flower spectra sharp steps of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybees. Sharp steps are a rapid change in the spectra wavelength (Chittka and Menzel 1992) (see fig. 3 for an example of a sharp step). These steps cross over different receptors, thereby producing vivid colours that stand out from the background. Furthermore, a colour signal will be more distinguishable to a pollinator if the sharp steps match up with the overlap of receptors in a visual system. Thus, the main feature of a flower wavelength is a sharp step. For this study, I defined a sharp step as a change of greater than 20 % reflectance in less than 50 nm of the bee visual spectrum. The midpoint of the slope was determined by eyesight as described by Chittka and Menzel (1992), as th e nature of curves varied with each flower. The absolute numbers of sharp steps within each flower spectra were counted. The frequencies are shown in fig. 4b. As hybrid plants are artificially selected by humans, hybrid flowers were not included in the analyses. Generating a Hexagon colour space To evaluate how flower colours are seen by bees, I plotted the flower colour positions in a colour hexagon space. A colour space is a numerical representation of an insect’s colour perception that is suitable for a wide range of hymenopteran species (Chittka 1992). In a colour space, the distances between locations of a two colour objects link with the insect’s capacity to differentiate those colours. To make the colour space, the spectral reflectance of the colour objects were required, as well as the receptor sensitivities of the insect. For Trigona carbonaria, the exact photoreceptors are currently unknown, but hymenopteran trichromatic vision is very similar between species as the colour photoreceptors are phylogenetically ancient (Chittka 1996). Thus, it is possible to model hymenopteran vision with a vitamin A1 visual template (Stavenga, Smits et al. 1993) as described by Dyer (1999). I then predicted how the brain processed these colour signals by using the avera ge reflectance from each flower, and calculating the photoreceptor excitation (E) values, according to the UV, blue and green receptor sensitivities (Briscoe and Chittka 2001) using the methods explained by Chittka (1992). The UV, blue and green E-values of flower spectra were used as coordinates and plotted in a colour space (Chittka 1992). The colour difference as perceived by a bee was calculated by the Euclidean distance between two objects locations in the colour hexagon space (Chittka 1992). Modelling the distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees’ perception I analysed the most frequent flower colour according to a bees’ colour perception using the methods of Chittka, Shmida et al. (1994). I plotted the Australian flower colours in a colour space (Fig 5a). A colour space is a graphical representation of a bees’ colour perception. A radial grid of 10 degree sectors was placed over the distribution of colour loci and the number of floral colour loci within each sector was counted(fig. 5b). Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? Insect model and housing Trigona carbonaria is an Australian native stingless bee that lives in colonies of 4000-10000 individuals (Heard 1988). In the wild, stingless bees live in hollows inside trees (Dollin, Dollin et al. 1997). Trigona carbonaria has a similar social structure to the honeybee (Wille 1983). They are common to North Eastern Australia and are a potentially important pollinator for several major commercial crops (Heard 1999). A research colony (ca. 4000 adults and 800 foraging individuals) of T. carbonaria was propagated for the experiments by Dr Tim Heard (CSIRO Entomology, 120 Meiers Rd, Indooroopilly 4068, Australia) as described in the paper by Heard (1988). Bees were maintained in laboratory conditions so that no previous contact with flowers had been made. For this study, a colony was placed in a pine nest box (27.5 x 20 x 31 cm; LWH) and connected to the foraging arena by a 16 cm plexiglass tube, containing individual shutters to control bee movements. All laboratory experiments were conducted in a Controlled Temperature Laboratory (CTL) at Monash University, Clayton, School of Biological Sciences (CTL room G12C dimensions 3 x 5m), during the months of July 2009- January 2010. Relative humidity (RH) was set to 30%, and the temperature was set to 27  °C (SPER-Scientific Hygrometer, Arizona, USA), as this set up approximately matches conditions in Queensland for insect pollinators (Heard and Hendrikz 1993). Illumination (10/14 hr day/night) was provided by four Phillips Master TLS HE slimline 28W/865 UV+ daylight fluorescent tubes (Holland) with specially fitted high frequency (>1200Hz) ATEC Jupiter EGF PMD2x14-35 electronic dimmable ballasts which closely matches daylight conditions for trichromatic hymenoptera (Dyer and Chittka 2004). The flight arena (1.2 x 0.6 x 0.5m; LWH) was made of a coated steel frame with laminated white wooden side panels. The arena floor was painted foliage green, and the arena lid was covered with UV transparent plexiglass. Experimen ts were conducted from 1pm-3pm to control for time of day, as this is when bees are most active (Heard and Hendrikz 1993). Pre-training Bees were habituated to the flight arena for seven days. Naive foragers (i.e. bees that had never encountered real or artificial flowers) were initially pre-trained to forage in the flight arena on three rewarding aluminium sanded disks (25 mm in diameter), with a 10-ÃŽ ¼l droplet of 15% (w/w) sucrose solution placed in the centre. The disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 25 mm, height = 100 mm), to raise them above the floor of the flight arena so that bees learnt to fly to the disks. Pre-training allows bees to become habituated to visiting artificial flowers for further experiments. The aluminium sanded disks were chosen as neutral stimuli because they have an even spectral reflectance curve in the spectral visual range of the bees, fig. 6. The sucrose solution reward on these training disks was refilled using a pipette after it was consumed by foraging bees. The spatial positions of these training disks were pseudo randomised, so that bees would not learn t o associate particular locations with reward. Bees were allowed a minimum of two hours to forage on the pre-training disks before data collection Innate colour preference testing To test the innate colour preferences of naive bees, I performed simultaneous choice experiments with flower-naive bees using artificial flowers that simulated the floral colours of natural flowers. The aluminum rewarding disks were replaced by the ten unrewarding, coloured artificial disks in the original flight arena. Artificial flower stimuli were cut in a circle (70 mm diameter) from standardized colour papers of the HKS-N-series (Hostmann-Steinberg K+E Druckfarben, H. Schmincke Co., Germany). In each experiment the same set of ten test colours (1N pale yellow, 3N saturated yellow, 21N light pink, 32N pink, 33N purple, 50N blue, 68N green, 82N brown, 92N grey, back of 92N white) were used. These colours were chosen as they have been used in innate colour experiments with other hymenopterans (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1995; Kelber 1997; Gumbert 2000), and the colours are also widely used in other bee colour experiments (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996). The coloured paper disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 15 mm; height = 50 mm), to raise them above the floor of the flight arena. The gate was shut in the arena to ensure the bees used in each trial were separated from the next trial. The number of landings and approaches to the stimuli were recorded for one hour. Approximately 200 bees were used for each trial. The spatial positions of the artificial flowers were pseudo randomised in a counter balance fashion every 15 minutes. After each trial, the colour disks were aired and wiped with a paper tissue to remove possible scent marks, which are known to affect experiments with honeybees (Schmitt and Bertsch 1990; Giurfa and Nà ºÃƒ ±ez 1992). I conducted each subsequent trial after removing the used bees from the system, to ensure that the bees in the next trial were replaced with naive foragers. It is known that perception of colour can be influenced by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Therefore, I also tested colour choices on other background colours of grey and black. The results are qualitatively similar (fig. 8b), so only data from the biologically relevant green background was used for subsequent analysis. Analysis of colour stimuli As bees see colours differently to humans, I quantified stimuli according to five parameters: wavelength, brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast. Dominant wavelength was calculated by tracing a line from the centre of the colour hexagon through the stimulus location to the corresponding spectrum locus wavelength (Wyszecki and Stiles 1982). Brightness was measured as the sum of excitation values of the UV, blue and green receptors (Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001). Spectral purity of the stimulus was calculated by the percentage distance of the stimulus in relation to the end of the spectrum locus (Chittka and Wells 2004). Chromatic contrast was calculated as the distance of a colour stimulus from the centre of the colour hexagon relative to the background. Chromatic contrast is important as perception can be affected by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Green receptor contrast was measured as the green receptor excitat ion from a stimulus relative to the background (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1995). This contrast is relevant as green receptors and green contrast are known to affect motion in bees (Srinivasan, Lehrer et al. 1987). Statistical analyses The impact of wavelength on number of landings by Trigona carbonaria was investigated using a single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a post hoc Tukeys HSD test (ÃŽ ±=0.05) (Quinn and Keough 2002) using the number of landings as the dependent variable and wavelength of stimuli as the independent variable. Brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast of stimuli were analysed using the Spearmans rank correlation test against choices. Statistical analyses were conducted using R statistical and graphical environment (R Development Core Team, 2007). Statistical significance was set to P≠¤0.05. Part 3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonaria? Plant model Caladenia carnea is a widespread species, common to eastern Australia. The orchid is highly variable in colour, ranging from pink to white. It is pollinated by Australian native bees of the Trigona species (Adams and Lawson 1993).With bright colours and fragrance, this orchid achieves pollination by food mimicry (Adams and Lawson 1993). Thus, due to the colour variation of the orchid, C. carnea is an excellent model with which to examine floral exploitation of potential pollinators. Caladenia carnea flowers were supplied by private growers from the Australasian Native Orchid Society. Can Trigona carbonaria perceive a difference between pink and white flowers of Caladenia carnea? Colorimetric analysis of the pink and white Caladenia carnea flowers were used to investigate whether different colours of the orchid would be perceived as similar or different to a bees’ visual system. A spectrophotometer was used to take four measurements of each flower colour (pink versus white). The actual measurements used in the analysis were an average of each colour (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). To predict the probability with which insect pollinators would discriminate between different flowers, these spectra were plotted as loci in a hexagon colour space (Chittka 1992) (see ‘hexagon colour space’ methods). Choice experiments I conducted trials testing the preferences of bees when offered a dichotomous choice between a white versus pink Caladenia carnea flower. Each trial took place inside a flight arena. Each white and pink flower used in a trial were matched for size, placed into indiviual plastic containers (diameter= 5 cm, height=5 cm) and placed in the arena with a distance of 10 cm between flower centres. Each container was covered with Glad WrapTM (The Clorox Company, Oaklands, CA, USA) to remove olfactory cues as they are known to in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uence the choice behaviour of honeybees (e.g. Pelz, Gerber et al. 1997; Laska, Galizia et al. 1999). Approximately 50 bees were let into the arena for each trial. The  ¬Ã‚ rst contact made by a bee with the Glad WrapTM within a distance of 4 cm, was recorded as a choice of that  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ower (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). The number of landings were recorded to the flowers for five minutes. After each trial, the Glad WrapTM was changed to prevent scent ma rks. In addition, individual flowers and spatial positions were randomised. Individual bees were sacrificed after each trial to avoid pseudo replication. Does the UV signal affect the attraction of bees to orchid flowers? To investigate whether the UV re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ectance of the dorsal sepal affected the response of bees, I offered bees the choice between two white orchids, one with a UV signal and the other without (N=16). The UV signal was removed by applying a thin layer of sunscreen (Hamilton SPF 30+, Adelaide, SA, Australia) over the dorsal sepal. Spectral reflectance measurements were taken to ensure that the sunscreen prevented any reflection of UV light (below 395 nm) from the sepals and did not change the reflectance properties of the orchid. In addition, spectral measurements of orchid sepals under Glad WrapTM confirmed that the foil was permeable to all wavelengths of light above 300 nm and did not obscure the reflectance of flowers. Do bees display preferences when choosing between pink versus white orchid flowers? To assess whether bees show a preference for pink or white variants of the orchid Caladenia carnea, I offered bees a simultaneous choice between a pink or white flower (N=16). See procedures for choice testing. Do bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration? I conducted a two stage experiment to investigate if bees could learn to habituate to a non-rewarding flower colour over time and whether bees adjusted their subsequent flower choice depending on the flower colour encountered previously. At stage 1 of the experiment, native bees were presented with one flower, either white or pink. Flowers were placed in a container with Glad WrapTM. Landings to the flower were recorded at the start and again at the 30 min mark. At stage 2, the flower from stage 1 was swapped with a new flower colour and the number of landings were scored for 5 minutes. Flowers were randomised and Glad WrapTM changed to prevent scent marks after each trial. Once again, bees were used only once per experiment. Statistical analyses For experiments 2, 3 4, numbers of landings by naive bees to flower pairs were compared using two tailed paired t-tests. A two factor ANOVA was used to analyse whether bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration. The dependent variable was the number of landings and the two independent variables were previous flower colour and new flower colour. 3. Results Part 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? Correlations between the inflection curves of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of hymenopterans The analysis of 111 spectral reflection curves of Australian flowers reveals that sharp steps occur at those wavelengths where hymenoterans are most sensitive to spectral differences (fig. 4b). There are three clear peaks in sharp steps (fig. 4b). It is known that hymenopteran trichomats are all sensitive to spectral differences at approximately 400 and 500 nm (Menzel and Backhaus 1991; Peitsch, Fietz et al. 1992). Hence, the peaks at 400 and 500 nm can be discriminated well by hymenopteran trichomats, as illustrated by the inverse Δ ÃŽ »/ÃŽ » function (solid curve shown in fig. 4a) of the honeybee (Helversen 1972), which is an empirically determined threshold function which shows the region of the electromagnetic function that a bees’ visual system discriminates colours best. In summary, the spectral position of receptors of trichomatic hymenopterans are correlates with steps in the floral spectra of Australian flowers. The distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees’ perception The floral colour loci are strongly clustered in the colour hexagon (fig. 5a). Blue-green flowers are the most common in the perception of bees, while pure UV flowers were the rarest (fig. 5b). Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? Effect of brightness, spectral purity, chromatic contrast and green receptor contrast on colour choices There was no significant effect of stimulus brightness on choice frequency (rs= 0.333, n=10, p= 0.347; fig. 7a). There was no significant effect of spectral purity on choice frequency (rs = 0.224, n=10, p= 0.533; figure 7b). There was no significant correlation effect of chromatic contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0.042, n=10, p= 0.907; figure 7c). There was no significant effect of green receptor contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0. 0.552, n=10, p= 0.098; figure 7d). Effect of wavelength on colour choices Stimuli colours are plotted in figure 8a, as they appear to a human viewer to enable readers to understand the correlation between colour choices. However, all statistical analyses were conducted with stimuli plotted as wavelength due to the different visual perception of bees and humans (Kevan, Chittka et al. 2001). There is a significant effect of wavelength on the number of landings by Trigona carbonaria (Single factor ANOVA, F9,110 = 5.60, P

Shakespeares King Lear - Father/Son Conflicts Caused by Inferiority Complex and Power Struggle :: essays research papers

Throughout the play King Lear, by William Shakespeare, a conflict is conveyed through father and son: Gloucester and Edmund. Although the cause of this conflict is Gloucester’s betrayal by his bastard son, Edmund, there is more to this conflict than a simple power struggle. Through intertwining plots and scandals, Edmund creates a forged letter, destructively â€Å"written† by his half-brother, Edgar, having to do with his made up plans to murder his father, Gloucester. Edmund surpasses this first betrayal and reaches the epitome of evil when he plots against his father by finding ways to cross Gloucester with Regan and Cornwall, further enhancing his potential inheritance and power. In this conflict, Edmund is the ultimate cause and initiator, making his father a victim to the scandal Edmund has viciously created. The conflict between Gloucester and his contriving son contribute to King Lear by becoming a parallel between Lear’s problems with his own daughters. Lear finds himself in a similar situation, his two daughters, Regan and Goneril, also scheme to betray their father, with hopes to profit from his loss of power. The resemblance between Lear’s daughters and Edmund holds a purpose to enhance the reader’s perception of what conflicts the desire for more power can create. Only through conveying separate instances of incredible treason between parent and offspring can the meaning and truth within the play’s key theme of betrayal be expressed. Shakespeare creates the character of Edmund to be the perfect villain. Not only does he â€Å"fight dirty† to gain power, he does it through manipulation and a complete lack of a conscience throughout a majority of the play. Because he is the illegitimate child he plans to, â€Å"if not by birth, have lands by wit.† The conflict between him and Gloucester is simply an inevitable effect caused by Edmund’s unyielding desire to gain more than his bastard status affords. He basically rips the Earl title away, along with his father’s eyes because of his unstoppable ambition. It is precisely this power-hungry vigor that Edmund maintains throughout the play that stirs the conflict with his father, enhancing the main plot of the betrayal of Lear by his duplicitous daughters. Edmund becomes increasingly consumed with the idea of gaining power and losing the bastard status that has been tagged to him since birth.

Ozone Depletion Essays -- essays research papers

Ozone Depletion In this world of rapid change, it's extremely difficult for a company to stay ahead of the game even using all the resources available to them. So, it's difficult to imagine the problems they would run into when a group of environmentalists decide to boycott a substance which is the foundation of their company. These chemicals, although very useful, cause consequences that need to be dealt with now in order to prevent further damage. The chemicals in question are numerous, but the two gaining the most attention are chloroflurocarbons (CFC's) and carbon tetrachloride. CFC's have a wide range of uses, but are popularly used in aerosol propellants and air conditioning for homes and cars (Singer and Crandall npg). Carbon tetrachloride is one of the major components in making CFC so their damage is similar. When they inter the outer atmosphere, They react with ozone chemicals to release chlorine and bromine that in turn deteriorate the ozone and form "thinning" or "holes." This is catastrophic because they are bonded very strongly together and cannot be broken down by water. This means they travel into the atmosphere virtually unharmed by rain or decomposition (Goldfarb 282). The reason these are causing such a commotion is the damage they cause to living things on Earth. When the ozone depletes, it causes more ultraviolet (UV) rays to hit the Earth's su...

Parallels Between The Sun Also Rises by Hemingway and The Great Gatsby

Parallels Between The Sun Also Rises by Hemingway and The Great Gatsby by Fitzgerald  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the decade of the 1920's, America was going through many changes, evolving from the Victorian Period to the Jazz Age. Changing with the times, the young adults of the 1920's were considered the "Lost Generation". The Great War was over in 1918. Men who returned from the war had the scars of war imprinted in their minds. The eighteenth amendment was ratified in 1919 which prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of liquor in the United States. Despite the eighteenth amendment, most people think of large, lavish parties when thinking about the 1920's. The nineteenth amendment was passed in 1920 which gave women the right to vote, a major accomplishment in the women's right movement. Women traded in their long, pinned-up hair styles for short, stylish bob haircuts. Two great American literary writers emerged from the "Lost Generation": namely Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Both men wrote their best novels during the 1920's in which they examined the evils of the time, and the consequences that accompanied the actions of the characters who acted on such vices. There are parallels between the vices of Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises and the vices of Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby: namely excessive alcohol consumption, sexual promiscuity, and the power of money. The first parallel between a vice in Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises and a vice in Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby is that of excessive alcohol consumption. The character's in The Sun Also Rises; namely Brett Ashley, Jake Barnes, Robert Cohn, Mike Campbell and Pedro Romero, are residing in Europe were there is no prohibition on liquor. Whet... ...oney and all the people he know through business contacts and the many parties he had thrown, only Nick and Gatsby's father attended his funeral. In conclusion, there are several parallels of vices between Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises and Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby: namely the excessive consumption of alcohol, sexual promiscuity, and the power of money. WORKS CITED Fitzgerald, Scott F. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribers, 1925. Jones. Interview. Celebration. BBS message 1160. 10/11/94. Hemingway, Ernest. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Macmillan, 1954. McDowell, Nicholas. Hemingway. Vero Beach: Rourke, 1989. Monique, Interview. Theme. BBS message 1755. 11/03/94. Rood, Karen Lane, ed. Dictionary of Literary Biography American Writers in Paris, 1920-1939. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 1980. J:ofsengclarklessaylindasch.doc   

Forgetting About Something Essay

Have you ever experienced forgetting about something? Like where did you put your pair of socks, where did you leave your car keys, or where did you put your pen? Did you ever wonder why or how this happens? For a period of three (3) days, I tried to observe myself. I used to forget where I put my door key. I realized that I have forgotten where my key in three different situations: – When I need to get out of the room – When something reminded me about keys like doors and door knobs, and – When I saw the usual spot for my room key and the key is not there. As I have researched, forgetting, also called as cue-dependent forgetting, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory is encoded. There are factors why retrieval of the memory fails. Usually, the information no longer exist in the mind that why a material cannot be found or cannot be recalled. Emotions also play a crucial role. The reason why I forget where I leave my key is that I am always in a hurry. And as I have observed, there are also reasons why I manage to remember where my key is. First, whenever I forgot where my key is, I am in a hurry to get out of the room and I cannot think properly where I last put my key. Then, I remember to recall where I put my key because I saw an object that reminds me of my key such as doors and knobs. Lastly, when I manage to relax for a while and see if I have got everything in order, I tend to look at the spot where I place my key. Being an important object or simply because it is a personal belonging, I have a list on my mind where my important things are. Concluding the activity, when someone is in hurry or feeling excited, the tendency to forget is very possible because there is so much going on with our minds. But once we take time to relax, recall, or back track our activities earlier, we can avoid retrieval failure on our memories. Reference Baddeley, A. D. (1997). Human Memory: Theory and Practice. Taylor and Francis Group.

Pyramids and Ziggurats

Pyramids and ziggurats both provide archeologists with a great deal of information about the ancient cultures that constructed them. When comparing The Great Pyramids of Egypt with The Ziggurats of Mesopotamia and the Mesoamerican Pyramids, the differences between them are more apparent than the similarities that they share. The structures only appear to be similar. Both have the general form of a pyramid. Some other similarities shared by these structures can be interpreted from a religious context of those who had them erected and what role they served for the society.Among the differences are their usage, how they were decorated, their designs, and the materials used in their construction. The Egyptian pyramids were built as the final resting place for the pharaoh. It was also where the Pharaohs possessions were kept for him to enjoy in the afterlife. What has been found inside of these tremendous pyramids are precise layouts. For example, page 51 in our first book shows a diagram of the pyramid and inside each of them is a narrow shaft that extends from the deepest chamber to the outside. Coincidentally it is aligned with the North Star.The Great Pyramids are quite interesting. The stones are so tight that you cannot even put a knife in between the stones. It makes you think how could this be possible? It makes you think how did these pyramids get built? Some might say that they were moved on wooden sleds, but it is quite hard to imagine how they constructed something on this scale. While it is true that the forced labor of war prisoners was a common practice at the time, most people agree that the humongous labor force used in building the pyramids consisted of workers from throughout Egypt as it states in our book.Another interesting fact is that they are also perfectly square and they are aligned almost precisely with a compass. So really the main purposes of these pyramids were to have a resting place for their Pharaohs as they entered the afterlife. Th e pyramids of Mesoamerica also had their dead buried inside just as the Maya had done as mentioned in Book III on page 105. Unlike the Ancient Egyptian pyramids, these pyramids are better known for serving as altars or bearers of sacrificial offerings. Like the ancientEgyptians, the early civilizations of Mesoamerica were involved in agriculture and their lives depended on how successful the harvest is. Because of this, both the Mayans and the Aztecs preformed human sacrifice as part of agricultural renewal. The temples had a long stair-stepped design that shows their purpose. The stepped design isn’t the only difference from the pyramids of ancient Egypt, but it was also the function they served in the society. These were temples to gods, and each one had a staircase topped with a temple.The Mesoamerican pyramids were the heart and center of the city and community. Its main focus was to serve as religious ceremonies and civic ceremonies unlike the Egyptians which had their p yramids away from the villages. The Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan was designed to represent certain astronomical events providing a link between the culture and the universe. If you look at the Pyramid of the Sun compared to the pyramids in Egypt, it is exactly the same size in terms of base as the great pyramid, but its height is roughly half the size of the great pyramids.It is actually more similar to the Mesopotamian Ziggurats than the Ancient Egyptians Pyramids. Ziggurats are a lot like the Mesoamerican pyramids, with their stair-stepped shape and temple tops. But ziggurats were not places of worship to the Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians that built them, they were the gods’ actual homes. In fact, only the priests could enter. And while South American pyramids have long staircases, ziggurats have ramps and steps. Many ziggurats also had seven tiers, representing the seven known planets or the seven heavens.For the most part, the ziggurats that still exist can b e found mainly in Iran and Iraq. Ziggurats and pyramids do greatly differ with function and purpose. As I had stated, Pyramids were thought to be the final resting places of the pharaohs. Ziggurats, however, were built to house the gods. Because of this, only special priests were allowed to go inside the ziggurats. Ziggurats also function as a retreat spot for the priest in case of a flood at the ground level. It also is a complete temple with dwelling places, storages, and courtyards.Zigguratss have steps and ramps with its sides receding. They pyramids have a long stretch of staircases as the Mesoamerican pyramids demonstrated and smoother sides, as the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids showed. The Ziggurats do lack internal chambers unlike the Egyptian Pyramids. The Ziggurats have seven layers that represent the seven planets of heaven. Studying these ancient structures gives us a chance to take a look at the past. It is amazing how these feats of engineering survived this long.Because o f this, we are able to look at the civilizations that built them and how they incorporated these structures into their society. For Ancient Egyptians, it was for the deceased pharaohs as they made their journey to the afterlife. For the Mesoamericans, it was for religious purposes and agricultural renewal. And last for the Mesopotamians, it served as a house where the gods lived. These structures were a representation of the whole universe to these people. It is hard to compare with anything that we have now.